The Struggle for the Throne
Aurangzeb, one of the most complex and controversial figures in Mughal history, ascended to the throne after a bitter war of succession. When his father, Shah Jāhan, fell gravely ill in 1657, his four sons—Dārā, Shujāʿ, Aurangzeb, and Murād—vied for the throne, setting the stage for a brutal contest of power. The succession war was marked by bloodshed, as Aurangzeb triumphed over his brothers, leading to the deaths of two and the imprisonment of his father. His victory was total, but it came at the cost of familial ties, setting the tone for his reign.
Expansion to the Limits
Once in power, Aurangzeb (reigned 1658–1707) set about extending the Mughal Empire to its greatest territorial expanse. His most notable military successes included the annexation of the Deccan Sultanates—Bijapur (1686) and Golconda (1687)—which significantly expanded Mughal control over southern India. However, his relentless expansionism came at a cost, both politically and socially.
Religious Intolerance and Political Hardening
Aurangzeb’s reign is often marked by his firm commitment to Islamic orthodoxy, which sharply contrasted with the more tolerant policies of his predecessors. He reintroduced the jizyah tax on non-Muslims, a controversial move that alienated his Hindu subjects. His reign witnessed the destruction of numerous Hindu temples and the suppression of Hindu schools, which deepened the divide between the Mughal Empire and its majority Hindu population. This intolerance extended to the Sikh community as well, particularly under the leadership of Guru Gobind Singh, leading to growing unrest in the Punjab.
In his pursuit of religious purity, Aurangzeb's policies also isolated him from the empire's diverse cultures and traditions. He excluded Hindus from key positions of power and sought to centralize control, increasing taxes and squeezing the peasantry. His economic policies, including the over-reliance on the manṣabdār system (a system of military ranks and land assignments), led to administrative inefficiencies and financial strain.
The Maratha Challenge
One of the most significant challenges to Aurangzeb’s rule came from the Marathas, who had been a thorn in the side of Mughal rule for decades. Despite Aurangzeb's success in forcing Shivaji, the Maratha chieftain, into submission in 1666, the Maratha leader escaped Mughal captivity later that year and launched a fierce resistance. Shivaji’s coronation in 1674, which included a Hindu religious consecration, garnered widespread support among Hindus and intensified the Maratha struggle against Mughal control.
Aurangzeb’s military campaigns against the Marathas were prolonged and costly. Despite his considerable forces, he was never able to fully crush their resistance in the Deccan, where the Marathas would continue to grow in strength and power long after his death. The Maratha challenge, combined with rebellion from the Rajputs and Sikhs, left Aurangzeb's empire deeply fractured.
Decline and Collapse
Aurangzeb’s reign, marked by both territorial expansion and internal strife, ultimately sowed the seeds of the Mughal Empire’s decline. His authoritarian rule, combined with religious intolerance, eroded the social cohesion that had characterized earlier Mughal reigns. The heavy taxes he imposed and the overextension of the empire drained the imperial treasury, while rebellions simmered across the empire.
By the time of his death in 1707, Aurangzeb had failed to resolve the crises facing his empire. The Marathas had solidified their position in the Deccan, the Rajputs remained restive, and the Sikhs had turned against Mughal authority. The empire was beset by internal divisions, and its administration was crumbling under the weight of its own overexpansion.
Aurangzeb’s death marked the beginning of a slow and inevitable decline for the Mughal Empire. Although the empire would continue for several more decades, it never recovered the unity and strength it had known under earlier rulers like Akbar. Aurangzeb’s reign, therefore, stands as both the height of the Mughal Empire’s territorial power and the beginning of its fragmentation, a paradox of ambition and division.
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